1.0 Science Overview
1.1 General Description of Stratospheric
Ozone
1.1.1
What is ozone?
1.1.2 UV
Effects and Ozone
1.1.3
Ozone Production
and Loss
1.1.4
Polar Ozone Science
1.1.4.1 Antarctic
and Arctic Ozone Levels
1.1.4.2
Polar Stratospheric Clouds
1.1.4.3 Dynamics
and Transport
1.1.5
Ozone and Public
Policy
1.2 General Description
of SOLVE-II Mission
1.3 SAGE
III Validation
1.4 SOLVE-II
Science Objectives
1.5 Measurement
Priorities
1.6 SOLVE I Results
2.0 Science Implementation
2.1 Instruments
2.2 Platforms
2.2.1 Aircraft
2.2.2 Balloons
and Rockets
2.2.3
Ground-based Observations
2.3
Geography
2.4 Forecasting
1.0 Science Overview
1.1 General Description of Stratospheric Ozone
1.1.1
What is ozone?
Ozone is an atmospheric gas which screens a harmful
form of solar radiation, known as ultraviolet radiation, from reaching the Earth.
About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere (the
region from about 30,000 feet to 180,000 feet above the Earth's surface between
the tropopause and stratopause). Ozone concentrations are greatest between about
50,000 and 100,000 feet, but these ozone concentrations are very small, typically
comprising only a few molecules per million molecules of air (air is composed
of about 78% nitrogen molecules and 21% oxygen molecules).
Scientific studies
of ozone are important because we do not yet understand how the ozone layer may
be changing, and how that may affect the habitability of the planet. Without protective
upper-level ozone, there would be no life on Earth. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation
is a primary cause of skin cancer, and will be exacerbated as ozone levels diminish.
In contrast, low-level or tropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas. Stratospheric
ozone losses are believed to cool the Earth's surface, while ozone increases in
the lower atmosphere will act to warm the Earth's surface.
Figure 1 shows
a typical profile of ozone density versus altitude (yellow line) in the midlatitudes
of the Northern Hemisphere (units=Dobson Units/kilometer). The stratosphere lies
between the tropopause and stratopause (marked in red). Superimposed on the figure
are plots of UV radiation as a function of altitude for UVa (320-400 nm, cyan),
UVb (280-320 nm, green), and UVc (200-280 nm, magenta). The width of the bar indicates
the amount of energy as a function of altitude. The UVc energy decreases dramatically
as ozone increases because of the strong absorption in the 200-280 nm wavelength
band. The UVb is also strongly absorbed, with a small fraction reaching the surface.
The UVa is only weakly absorbed by ozone, with some scattering of radiation near
the surface.
Figure 1: Ozone Density Profile for the Northern
Hemisphere
1.1.2 UV Effects and Ozone
Absorption of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation is critical for our well being,
since ultraviolet light can break the bonds of DNA molecules (the molecular carriers
of our genetic coding), and thereby damage cells. While most plants and animals
are able to either repair or destroy their damaged cells, on occasion, these damaged
DNA molecules are not repaired or eliminated, and can replicate, leading to dangerous
forms of skin cancer in humans (basal, squamous, and melanoma). Fortunately, ozone
strongly absorbs UV. Note how the magenta bar in Figure 1 above quickly diminishes
as the solar energy penetrates to levels where ozone is found. UVb is also strongly
absorbed, but some UVb can penetrate to the surface. If ozone were reduced by
1%, there would be about a 2% increase of surface UVb. Diminished levels of ozone
lead to increases of UVb and UVa radiation at the surface with a consequent adverse
biological response.
1.1.3 Ozone Production and
Loss
Ozone is produced by the intense ultraviolet radiation in the upper
stratosphere at wavelengths generally less than 240 nm. This radiation breaks
apart an oxygen molecule into oxygen atoms and these atoms in turn react with
other oxygen molecules to form ozone molecules. This ozone production process
is shown schematically in Figure 2.
Figure
2: Ozone Production Process
Ozone is destroyed when it reacts with one
of a variety of chemicals in the stratosphere such as chlorine, nitrogen, bromine
or hydrogen. This process occurs in a three-step catalytic process. The first
ozone molecule is photolyzed to form an O atom and the first oxygen molecule.
Second, the catalyst reacts with another ozone molecule to form XO and the second
oxygen molecule. Finally, the XO molecule reacts with the O atom to form a third
oxygen molecule, and to reform the original catalyst. The catalyst converts two
ozone molecules into 3 oxygen molecules without being affected itself. A typical
chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules in this fashion. Figure
3 portrays the destruction of ozone in a homogeneous gas phase reaction.
Figure
3: Ozone Destruction Process
The catalyst (X, the black molecule) in Figure
3 represents a chlorine, bromine, hydrogen, or nitrogen atom. Such reactions occur
naturally, and the global ozone levels are approximately balanced between the
solar production and chemical losses from these processes. Increasing the levels
of chlorine and other pollutants in the stratosphere could increase the chemical
loss process, and subsequently decrease the ozone levels.
Substantial
polar ozone loss requires three key ingredients. First, there must be significant
levels of inorganic chlorine for conversion into radical forms. This condition
has been true since the early 1980s as a result of pollution of the stratosphere
by chlorofluorocarbons. Second, temperatures must be cold enough (below about
195 K) for PSCs to form. This always happens in the Arctic by early December.
Finally, the cold temperatures must persist late into the winter and early spring
when the sun is fully risen over the Arctic.
1.1.4
Polar Ozone Science
The lower stratosphere during the Arctic winter is
a strange environment for both chemistry and meteorology. During the winter, Arctic
temperatures at about 20 km can fall below -120 F (-83 C). In the Antarctic, the
temperatures are even colder, occasionally falling below -136 F. Although the
stratosphere is very dry, these extremely cold temperatures cause clouds to form.
These polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) enable very interesting chemical reactions
(known as heterogeneous chemical processes) that accelerate ozone loss. In fact,
these heterogeneous reactions cause the Antarctic ozone "hole." Scientists are
increasingly worried that cooler temperature in the Arctic may lead to increased
formation of PSCs, and thereby massive ozone losses. The ability to predict these
losses requires detailed understanding of the chemistry, dynamics, and radiative
properties of the Arctic stratosphere.
1.1.4.1 Antarctic
and Arctic Ozone Levels
The Antarctic ozone "hole" is a region of extreme
ozone loss that has been appearing annually since the 1970s. Ozone amounts over
Antarctica drops dramatically (up to 50%) in the course of a few weeks during
the August-September period. The ozone hole results from the increased amounts
of chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere, combined with the peculiar meteorology
and extreme cold of the Southern Hemisphere winter. Figure 4 shows October averages
of satellite data for a series of early years, prior to the appearance of the
ozone hole (top panels), and the last few years (bottom panels). These averages
are determined from satellite column ozone as measured by Nimbus-4 BUV (1970,
72, 72), Nimbus-7 (1979), Meteor-3 (1994), SBUV (1996), and EP-TOMS (1997, 98)
satellites. The color scale on the bottom indicates high ozone levels in red,
and low ozone in the blues and purples.
Figure 4: Antarctic Ozone Levels
The
growth of chlorine and bromine levels in the stratosphere has produced very large
losses of ozone over the polar regions, producing this Antarctic ozone hole. During
the 1990s, ozone levels are less than half of what was observed during the 1960s
and 70s. Losses of a similar magnitude have been observed over the Arctic for
a number of years.
Figure 5 shows polar averaged Arctic ozone levels. Because
of the different climates of the Arctic and Antarctic, the Arctic ozone levels
are naturally higher, yet both polar regions have shown reduced ozone over the
last decade. The March averages of total ozone as measured by Nimbus-4 BUV (1971,
72), Nimbus-7 (1979, 90, 93), NOAA-14 SBUV-2 (1996), and EP-TOMS (1997) satellites.
Note the differences in color scales between Figures 4 and 5; northern ozone levels
are naturally much higher than southern levels.
Figure
5: Arctic Ozone Levels
1.1.4.2 Polar Stratospheric
Clouds
The extremely low ozone which occurred in the Arctic during the
1990's also coincided with colder than normal temperatures. The cold temperatures
led to an increase in the occurrence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). The
PSCs led to increased ozone loss via the heterogeneous reactions that occur on
the cloud surfaces. This is discussed in the following sections.
As the
stratosphere cools to very cold temperatures over the Antarctic during the southern
winter, PSCs form. Figure 6 shows a photograph of a PSC taken by Brian Toon near
Iceland during the AASE I campaign in 1989. PSCs are particularly prevalent in
the Northern Scandinavia region during the winter period. Kiruna, Sweden is an
optimal site (see section 2.3) for sampling PSCs,
since the stratosphere above Kiruna is normally quite cold, and the local meteorology
(mountain forced waves) creates even colder conditions, leading to PSC formation.
Figure 6: PSC observed during AASE
I near Iceland
(Photo courtesy of O. B. Toon).
PSCs are principally
responsible for the observed ozone losses in the polar region. These PSCs convert
inorganic chlorine from reservoir species (HCl and ClONO2) to free radical form
as in the Antarctic [see Brune et al., 1990; Toohey et al., 1993]. This conversion
occurs via heterogeneous reactions on the surfaces of stratospheric particles
and aerosols. Direct in-situ observations of PSCs are rather rare, having only
occurred during a few flights of the ER-2 during the SOLVE-I, AAOE, AASE-I, and
ASHOE/MAESA campaigns.
1.1.4.3 Dynamics and
Transport
The polar lower stratosphere becomes extremely cold during winter,
since the polar night jet acts to contain the polar air during mid-winter. This
polar air mass is known as the polar vortex. As viewed from space above the North
Pole, this appears as a counterclockwise swirl of air. Because of this containment,
this polar vortex air has a distinctive chemical composition as compared to air
in the mid-latitudes. This containment makes the polar vortex a "containment vessel"
for the chemical ozone loss that takes place during the winter and spring.
The
air found in the polar vortex principally originates from higher stratospheric
altitudes. The air generally moves poleward and downward over the course of the
winter period. Since ozone values increase with altitude, this poleward and downward
motion increases the column ozone amount. Therefore, the average transport of
air toward the pole during the winter will act to increase the column ozone over
the course of winter.
1.1.5 Ozone and Public
Policy
Reported ozone losses and predictions of ozone loss have heightened
our concern with the effects of increased UV levels. Such concerns have led to
international treaties such as the Montreal Protocol, which have regulated the
production of certain gases which can harm the ozone layer. Further research and
measurements have begun to provide insight into how other atmospheric processes
(such as greenhouse warming) can effect ozone. This further research in necessary
to refine our understanding of the stratosphere, leading to well based policy
decisions.
1.2 General Description of SOLVE-II
Mission
The second SAGE III Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE-II)
is an atmospheric science measurement campaign in the Arctic high-latitude region
planned for January-April 2003 that will focus on acquiring correlative data needed
to validate measurements from the Meteor-3M/Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment
(SAGE) III satellite mission. This includes measurement of ozone, aerosols, and
trace gases from NASA's DC-8 aircraft along with balloons, rockets, and sondes.
The DC-8 will fly a series of flights in and around the polar vortex on a variety
of flight trajectories for temporal and spatial coincident data acquisition using
both remote sensing and in situ detection measurements. The field campaign will
also acquire correlative measurement with the atmospheric chemistry instruments
onboard the POAM and ENVISAT satellite missions to enhance comparison and science
activities utilizing these data sets.
The SOLVE-II mission will include
profile measurements of ozone, water vapor, nitrogen dioxide, temperature, pressure,
and aerosol size distribution from small balloons. These measurements will provide
linkage to previous satellite validation activities and will serve as a valuable
cross-reference to other long-term records. It is envisioned that such balloon
payloads will be launched from the Esrange facility near Kiruna, Sweden, which
will be at approximately the same latitude of measurement for SAGE III sunset
occultation events during the campaign. It is anticipated that approximately 6-8
balloon launches will be conducted during the campaign. It is also possible that
one or two heavy lift balloons carrying remote sensing instrumentation will be
launched during the January-March, 2002 timeframe.
This campaign will be
conducted in close collaboration with the VINTERSOL (Validation of International
Satellites and study of Ozone Loss) campaign sponsored by European Commission.
More than 350 scientists from the United States, the European Union, Canada, Iceland,
Japan, Norway, Poland, Russia, and Switzerland will participate in this joint
effort. SOLVE-II is co-sponsored by the Upper Atmosphere Research Program, the
Radiation Sciences Program, the Atmospheric Chemistry Modeling and Analysis Program,
and Earth Observing System of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise.
1.3
SAGE III Validation
A major objective of SOLVE II is the validation
of the SAGE-III instrument, which was launched on the Russian Meteor 3M spacecraft
on December 10, 2001. SAGE III is the latest in a family of solar occultation
satellite instruments designed to monitor distributions of stratospheric and upper
tropospheric aerosol, ozone, water vapor, and other important chemically active
trace species with very high vertical resolution of approximately 0.5 km. Measurements
from SAGE III will extend the approximately 17 year data record collected by SAGE
II (1984-present) and provide a valuable data resource that will enable an examination
of long-term climate variations and trend analysis.
For the Meteor 3M/SAGE
III mission, solar occultation measurements will occur mostly at high latitudes
in the Northern Hemisphere and mid latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. This
coverage will allow measurements to be made within the Arctic polar vortex where
polar stratospheric clouds form and rapid ozone loss occurs locally in winter
and early spring. Greater latitudinal coverage is available from lunar occultation
events. Figure 7 shows the expected latitudinal coverage of SAGE III measurement
locations throughout the year.
Figure
7: Predicted coverage of the SAGE III measurement locations for 2003 solar and
lunar occultation events.
Validation of SAGE III science data requires
airborne and balloon correlative measurements that are in close temporal and spatial
coincidence to reduce uncertainties in representative sampling. Added correlative
measurements are also needed along the line-of-sight between the satellite and
the sun (or moon) to assess the impact of constituent inhomogeneity on the retrieval
algorithm. This is especially true in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds
or cirrus. The measurement requirements specified below are discussed further
in the SAGE III
Validation Plan 2000.
1.4 SOLVE-II Science
Objectives
The SOLVE-II campaign is designed to pursue five basic science
objectives. These objectives are:
- Understanding polar
ozone loss rate in early to mid-winter. Observations during the first SOLVE campaign
(see section 1.6) showed a larger than expected
loss of ozone during the January-February period. During SOLVE-II DC-8 flights
and balloon observations will be designed to again measure ozone losses.
- Improving
our understanding of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). Observations during the
first SOLVE campaign revealed the unexpected presence of very tenuous PSCs composed
of large particles in the high Arctic region. These large particles were shown
to be composed of nitric acid and water and contribute to ozone depletion. However,
the formation of these large particles is not understood.
- Improving
our understanding of the chemistry of ozone loss. Arctic ozone is destroyed by
chlorine and bromine gases that primarily come from human-produced compounds.
Measurements of these compounds during the first SOLVE campaign showed that the
observed decrease of ozone was in reasonable agreement with the observed levels
of chlorine and bromine. During the SOLVE-II campaign, we will also be testing
our observed ozone losses against these chlorine and bromine levels.
- Meteorological
impacts on polar ozone levels. Over the course of the winter, ozone typically
increases in the polar region, as ozone rich air in the mid and high altitudes
is carried poleward by the winds. This motion also acts to warm the polar region.
Because meteorological conditions vary widely between winters, this transport
of ozone-rich air must be carefully identified during a winter campaign.
- SAGE
III instrument validation. Ozone, aerosol, water vapor, and nitrogen dioxide measurements
from the DC-8 will be compared to SAGE III measurements to demonstrate the quality
of satellite observations. The satellite observations are key components of the
international effort to determine the current state of the ozone layer, and to
determine how it will evolve in the future.
1.5
Measurement Priorities
Based on the five science objectives described
above, the SOLVE-II measurement priorities (and selection of appropriate measurement
instruments) were developed as follows:
- Ozone Concentration
SAGE III will measure ozone concentration from cloud top to 85 km with an accuracy
of about 6% at the peak and a vertical resolution of 0.5 km. By contrast, this
mission will focus on obtaining correlative ozone measurements in the upper troposphere
and lower to mid-stratosphere. Accurate knowledge of ozone trends in this region
near the tropopause is critical for assessing radiative forcing. Historically,
this is the same altitude regime in which SAGE II has had its greatest uncertainties
in ozone trend assessments.
To address the vertical extent of the SAGE
III and other ozone measurement variability over the slant path (line-of-sight)
of approximately 200 km for a given altitude, we will include zenith and nadir
viewing lidar measurements of ozone concentrations on the DC-8 instrument payload.
Lidar measurements provide high precision, but have lower accuracy; thus, an in
situ ozone concentration measurement will also be included. Lidar profile measurements
will extend to an altitude of at least 10 km above flight altitude. In situ observations
will also cover the operational altitude range of the aircraft.
- Aerosols
SAGE III will measure aerosol extinction at seven wavelengths ranging
from 385 to 1550 nm in the troposphere and stratosphere. Validation of these measurements,
as well as derived products such as aerosol surface area, will be based on data
comparisons between instruments.
Lidar aerosol and cloud measurements
Vertical lidar backscatter measurements provide an excellent method for
examining the vertical and horizontal variability of aerosol and optically-thin
clouds along the SAGE slant path. Because the aerosol lidar retrieval is strongly
affected by the normalization procedure, measurements should reach heights above
30 km, where Rayleigh scattering dominates the backscatter return. Measurements
must have 0.5 km vertical resolution or better. Depolarization measurements are
further required to discriminate between spherical and non-spherical particles.
In situ particle samplers
The multi-wavelength SAGE III aerosol
measurements provide estimates of aerosol surface area. Well-calibrated instruments
are needed to validate these estimates over aerosol particle size distributions
in the sub-micron size range. Aerosol composition in the stratosphere and upper
troposphere is needed to examine variability of the backscatter-to-extinction
conversion factor. Instruments should be able to measure particle optical surface
area to better than a factor of two.
Solar radiometer
Radiometers
can provide slant-path optical depth measurements at many of the same wavelengths
measured by SAGE III. Such measurements can further be differentiated during aircraft
ascents or descents to yield vertical extinction profiles for intercomparison.
These data will also enable profiles of aerosol extinction to be compared with
those derived from in situ particle samplers or inferred from lidar backscatter
observations.
- Water vapor In situ water vapor measurements will
be needed with an accuracy of approximately 10% for the upper troposphere and
less than 25% for the stratosphere. Lidar profile measurements will also be needed
to examine its variability in the troposphere along the SAGE III slant path. Measurements
are also desired in the stratosphere, where variations near PSCs could provide
insight on cloud formation. Such profile measurements should extend at least 10
km above and 5 km below flight altitude in clear sky conditions.
- Temperature,
Pressure and Altitude Registry Temperature profiles also will be used to help
interpret PSC measurements and to calculate the altitude of the tropopause. Profile
measurements are needed from a point several kilometers below the aircraft to
a height of about 35 km.
The accurate determination of the transmission
profile is fundamental to the retrieval of all species. For SAGE I, altitude registration
errors of about 200 to 400 m resulted in biases in ozone mixing ratio and other
species. For SAGE III, altitude registration with an uncertainty of < 100 m is
desired. Validation may be achieved by measuring the altitude of the top of an
optically thick cloud that lies along the slant path. It may also be achieved
by matching profiles of aerosol, ozone, and water vapor, especially near the tropopause
where strong vertical gradients exist. A combination of upward and downward viewing
lidar profiles acquired along aircraft survey and staircase flights should provide
this information.
- Nitrogen Dioxide and Chlorine Dioxide Correlative
observations of NO2 and OClO are needed to compare with SAGE III measurement profiles.
Nitrogen dioxide will be observed during both solar and lunar occultation events
and are needed over the altitude range of about 20 km to 35 km. OClO will only
be observed during lunar occultation events.
- In situ Conditions
DC-8 facility measurements of time, position (latitude, longitude, and both radar
and pressure altitude), attitude angles, and in situ temperature will be made
to time correlate data sets obtained during mission operations.
1.6
SOLVE I Results
Between November 1999 and April 2000, two major field
experiments, the first Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) III Ozone
Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE) and the third European Stratospheric Experiment
on Ozone (THESEO 2000), collaborated to form the largest field campaign yet undertaken
to study Arctic ozone loss. This international campaign involved more than 500
scientists from over 20 countries. These scientists made measurements across the
high and middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.
The main scientific
aims of SOLVE/THESEO 2000 were to study the processes leading to ozone loss in
the Arctic vortex and the effect on ozone amounts over northern midlatitudes.
The campaign included satellites, research balloons, six aircraft, ground stations,
and scores of ozonesondes. Campaign activities were principally conducted in three
intensive measurement phases centered on early December 1999, late January 2000,
and early March 2000. Observations made during the campaign showed that temperatures
were below normal in the polar lower stratosphere over the course of the 1999-2000
winter. Because of these low temperatures, extensive polar stratospheric clouds
(PSC) formed across the Arctic. Large particles containing nitric acid trihydrate
were observed for the first time, showing that denitrification can occur without
the formation of ice particles. Heterogeneous chemical reactions on the surfaces
of the PSC particles produced high levels of reactive chlorine within the polar
vortex by early January. This reactive chlorine catalytically destroyed about
60% of the ozone in a layer near 20 km between late January and mid-March 2000,
with good agreement being found between a number of empirical and modeling studies.
The measurements made during SOLVE/THESEO 2000 have improved our understanding
of key photochemical parameters and the evolution of ozone-destroying forms of
chlorine.
2.0 Science Implementation
2.1 Instruments
Once the science objectives
and measurement priorities of the SOLVE campaign were identified, a NASA Research
announcement (NRA-02-OES-02) was issued to select appropriate investigations and
instruments. The selected aircraft instruments are mapped to these priorities
in Table 1. Detailed information on the instruments which comprise the SOLVE-II
mission can be found here.
Desired
Measurements | Priority | Measurement
Techniques | Instruments | Principal
Investigators |
|---|
| O3 Concentration | 1 | lidar,
microwave radiometer,
in situ techniques | DIAL
FASTOZ
AROTAL
AEROSOL
AATS | E. Browell/LaRC
M. Avery/LaRC
McGee/Burris/GSFC
C. Hostetler/LaRC
P. Russell/ARC |
Aerosol Extinction
(wavelengths 385 nm - 1550 nm); | 1 | lidar,
solar radiometer,
particle samplers | FCAS/NMAS
DIAL
DIAPER
AATS | M. Reeves/U. Denver
E. Browell/LaRC
B. Anderson/LaRC
P. Russell/ARC |
H2O
Concentration | 1 | lidar,
diode
laser hygrometer,
photofragment fluorescent hygrometer,
& other in
situ techniques | DACOM/DLH
GAMS/LAABS | G.
Diskin/LaRC
M. Pitts/LaRC |
Temperature/Pressure | 1 | lidar,
microwave radiometer,
in situ probe | MTP | M.
Mahoney/JPL |
NO2 | 2 | solar
radiometer,
FTIR,
UV/Vis spectrometer | DIAS
GAMS/LAABS | R.
Shetter/NCAR
M. Pitts/LaRC |
OClO | 2 |
inferred from microwave radiometer | | |
Solar
Imager | 2 | CCD imager | DIAS | R.
Shetter/NCAR | Long-lived Tracers
N2O, CO2,
CO,CH4 | 2 | in situ techniques | DACOM/DLH | G.
Diskin/LaRC |
HNO3 | 2 | Mass
spectrometry,
Microwave radiometer | PANTHER | J.
Elkins/NOAA |
ClO, BrO | 2 | Microwave
radiometer | | |
Reservoir Compounds
ClONO2,
HCl | 2 | Remote-sensing Techniques | | |
Table
1: Measurement requirements and candidate instrumentation for the DC-8
2.2
Platforms
2.2.1 Aircraft
The DC-8 aircraft,
based at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, is the primary measurement platform
for the SOLVE-II mission. The DC-8 provides a unique airborne science platform
for a wide variety of experiments, collecting data in support of scientific projects
which serves the world scientific community. Included in this community are NASA,
federal, state, academic, and foreign investigators. Data gathered at flight altitude
and by remote sensing from the DC-8 have been used in many studies including:
archaeology, ecology, geology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, volcanology,
atmospheric chemistry, soil science, biology, and other earth science disciplines.
The DC-8 aircraft used for this campaign is a medium altitude, moderate to high
speed aircraft flying up to 41,000 feet above sea level between 425 and 490 knots
True Air Speed (TAS). The DC-8 is capable of precise flight line navigation by
means of an integrated inertial and GPS navigation systems from which line guidance
is provided to the pilots. Further information on the capabilities of the aircraft
can be found here.
In addition, VINTERSOL scientists will concurrently take measurements
of the stratosphere using a large suite of instruments aboard the European high-flying
M55 Geophysica aircraft, and the German DLR Falcon. A temperature profiling instrument
from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory will also fly on the M55 Geophysica. These
aircraft will also be based in Kiruna, Sweden.
2.2.2
Balloons and Rockets
Balloon-borne in situ or remotely sensed observations
of O3, NO2, and H2O will provide valuable profile
data at latitudes near coincident with SAGE III sunset occultation measurements
of these same species. In situ measurements of aerosol size distribution and surface
area will similarly provide validation for SAGE III estimates of these parameters.
Concurrent temperature and pressure measurements are also required to determine
altitude and aid in scientific analysis. Additional measurements HNO3,
BrO, ClO, CO, CO2, CH4, CFC-11, CFC-12, N2O,
ClONO2, HCl, and HF will aid validation efforts for ILAS-II and SCIAMACHY,
other atmospheric chemistry instruments, as well as enhance the interpretation
of SAGE III observations.
The Esrange balloon and rocket launch facility
near Kiruna, Sweden is the primary SOLVE-II balloon launch location due to its
proximity to the latitude of SAGE III sunset occultations. Launches will be centered
on the 3-4 week DC-8 deployment period in January/February 2003. However, launches
may occur as early as late November 2002 and as late as April 2003 to maximize
satellite comparison opportunities.
2.2.3 Ground-based
Observations
During SOLVE-II, concurrent ground-based observations will
also be made from Sweden, Norway, Finland, Germany, and Switzerland.
2.3
Geography
Kiruna, Sweden is located at 67.8 deg N latitude, 20.4 deg E
longitude, about 200 km (125 miles) north of Arctic Circle. The town of Kiruna
is approximately 500 m above sea level and has a population of about 25,000. It
is the northern most municipality in Sweden, in the region known as Lapland. Wintertime
conditions in and around Kiruna can be very severe, and during the coldest months,
December, January and February, the average temperature is normally around -15
degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit).
Kiruna was chosen as the deployment
site for the SOLVE campaign for two reasons. First, the Arena Arctica facility
at the Kiruna airport is a superb hangar and laboratory for operations during
the arctic winter for the DC-8 and the European aircraft, and the hangar can easily
house the many scientific instruments which will be flown during the mission.
Second, Kiruna's extreme northern latitude is ideally located for measurements
of the lower stratospheric polar vortex. Since Kiruna is at the edge of the winter
polar vortex, the campaign aircraft can easily measure from the edge to the center
of the vortex. Kiruna is also located near the climatological average coldest
region in the Arctic. Proximity to the cold temperatures in this region is essential
for the sampling of the PSCs during the winter period.
Figure 8 shows
the SOLVE II operations region, with Kiruna, Sweden, noted at the center of the
image with the green star. The magenta line indicates a distance of 2700 km from
Kiruna. The blue dots indicate ground observation sites, while the red dots indicate
ozonesonde sites. Also superimposed are 50-hPa January average temperature contours
(1979-1999).
Figure
8: SOLVE II Area of Operations
2.4 Forecasting
Meteorological forecasts of ground conditions and stratospheric fields will be
required for directing DC-8 and balloon operations. The investigators will actively
participate in mission development activities and in-field operations.
Information Sources
Newman, P. A., et al., An overview
of the SOLVE/THESEO 2000 campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 107(0), XXXX, doi:10.1029/
2001JD001303, 2002.
NASA Research Announcement, NRA-02-OES-02, April 1,2002.
SAGE III
Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE) website.
Newman, P. A., SOLVE-II/VINTERSOL Science Goals and Mission Description,
SOLVE-II Science Meeting, Dryden Flight Research Center, December 11, 2002.
Miller,
C., SOLVE II Experimenter's Bulletin, September 13, 2002.
